Eczema in Babies: A Pediatric Guide to Infant Atopic Dermatitis

Eczema in babies, also called infant atopic dermatitis, affects up to 20% of infants and usually starts between 2 and 6 months of age, according to a 2020 systematic review by Bylund and colleagues [1]. Severe atopic eczema in babies means widespread, inflamed, weeping or thickened skin that disturbs sleep and feeding despite daily moisturizer and mild topical steroids, and it calls for a pediatric dermatologist, a stepped plan of stronger topical therapy and wet wraps, and in some cases the FDA approved biologic dupilumab from 6 months of age [17].

How Common Is Eczema in Babies?

Atopic dermatitis (the clinical term for eczema, often shortened to AD) is the most common chronic inflammatory skin condition in children, and it usually begins early. Population-based studies place the prevalence at 15-20% of infants in developed countries, with rates that have been climbing over the past several decades [1]. About 60% of cases start within the first year of life, and most of those appear between 2 and 6 months of age [1].

If your baby has been diagnosed with eczema, you are dealing with something extremely common. That does not make the red, itchy patches any less distressing to watch (or to manage at 3 a.m. when your infant is scratching and uncomfortable), but it does mean there is a well-established treatment playbook that works for the large majority of cases.

Most infant atopic dermatitis is mild. A smaller group of babies has moderate or severe disease, and that group drives most of the sleepless nights, skin infections and specialist visits. The sections below cover both: the everyday routine that suits every baby with eczema, and the extra steps a pediatric dermatologist adds when the skin does not settle.

What Does Baby Eczema Look Like?

The appearance and location of eczema change as babies grow, which can make it tricky to recognize at first.

Young Infants (2-6 Months)

Eczema typically appears as red, rough, scaly patches on the cheeks and forehead. The scalp is another common early site, where it can overlap with (or be mistaken for) cradle cap. The outer surfaces of the arms and legs may also be involved. The diaper area is usually spared because the moisture and occlusion there actually protects the skin [2].

Older Infants and Toddlers (6-24 Months)

As babies become mobile (crawling, cruising, walking), eczema often migrates to the extensor surfaces of the elbows and knees, where friction from movement irritates the skin. The wrists, ankles, and hands may become involved. By toddlerhood, eczema begins shifting to the classic flexural pattern (inner elbows, behind the knees, neck folds) that characterizes childhood and adult atopic dermatitis [2].

Signs of Infection

Eczema-damaged skin is vulnerable to bacterial infection, most commonly Staphylococcus aureus. Warning signs include weeping or crusting (especially honey-colored crusts), increased redness and warmth, pus-filled bumps, and a sudden worsening that does not respond to usual treatments [3]. Infected eczema needs medical evaluation and often a course of antibiotics or antiseptic treatment.

Eczema Herpeticum: The One That Cannot Wait

Eczema herpeticum is a widespread herpes simplex virus infection of eczema skin, and it is a medical emergency in a baby. It shows up as clusters of small, punched-out sores or blisters that spread quickly, often with fever and a baby who is unusually fussy or unwell [3]. Same-day care matters because treatment is antiviral medicine such as acyclovir, not more steroid cream.

What Is Severe Atopic Eczema in Babies?

Severe atopic eczema in babies is eczema that covers large areas of the body, stays red and inflamed most of the time, and interferes with sleep, feeding or growth despite a good daily routine of emollients and mild topical steroids. Severe skin is often weeping, crusted or thickened from constant rubbing, and it becomes infected more often [2][3]. Babies with severe disease are also the group most likely to have a coexisting food allergy [5].

How Clinicians Grade Eczema Severity

Pediatric dermatologists measure severity with validated scoring tools rather than by eye alone. The most common are SCORAD (SCORing Atopic Dermatitis), EASI (Eczema Area and Severity Index), and POEM (Patient Oriented Eczema Measure), which asks parents how many days in the past week the itch disturbed sleep or broke the skin. These scores decide when a baby moves from first-line care to stronger treatment, and they track whether that treatment is working.

Signs That Eczema Has Become Severe

• Red, inflamed skin over much of the body, including the trunk, rather than a few patches on the cheeks or limbs.
• Night waking from itch most nights of the week, and scratching that draws blood.
• Repeated skin infections, or weeping and crusting that keep coming back.
• Poor weight gain, feeding problems, or a baby who is irritable most of the day.
• Flares that return within days of stopping a correctly used course of topical steroid.

Who Treats Severe Infant Eczema

A pediatrician manages most cases. Severe atopic dermatitis in infants is usually shared with a pediatric dermatologist, who leads skin treatment, and a pediatric allergist and immunologist when food allergy is suspected. Some children's hospitals run multidisciplinary eczema clinics with dermatology nurses who teach wet wrap technique and medication routines to parents.

Common Triggers

Eczema is fundamentally a disease of impaired skin barrier function combined with immune dysregulation, not simply an “allergy.” That said, specific triggers can provoke or worsen flares [4]. A fuller list for older children and adults sits in our post on everyday eczema triggers.

Irritants

• Soaps and detergents: Conventional baby washes, bubble baths, and fragranced products strip the already-compromised skin barrier. Fragrance-free, soap-free cleansers are essential.
• Saliva and drool: A major cause of cheek and chin eczema in young infants. Applying a barrier ointment (petroleum jelly) around the mouth before feeds can help.
• Rough fabrics: Wool and some synthetic materials irritate eczema-prone skin. Soft cotton is the safest choice for clothing and bedding.
• Laundry products: Fragranced detergents and fabric softeners are common culprits. Switch to fragrance-free, dye-free options.

Environmental Factors

• Dry air: Low humidity (common in winter with indoor heating) increases transepidermal water loss and worsens eczema. A cool-mist humidifier in the nursery can help maintain moisture levels.
• Heat and sweating: Overheating triggers itch. Dress babies in light layers and keep room temperatures moderate.
• Dust mites and pet dander: These are classic atopic triggers, though their role in infant eczema is debated. Routine environmental allergy testing is not recommended for babies with uncomplicated eczema [4].

Food Allergens

The relationship between food and eczema is real but often overestimated by parents. About 30% of infants with moderate-to-severe eczema have a coexisting food allergy, most commonly to cow’s milk, egg, peanut, wheat, or soy, according to Eigenmann and colleagues (1998) [5]. Food allergy in this context typically presents as an immediate reaction (hives, vomiting, swelling) after ingestion, not as a slow worsening of eczema patches. Blanket elimination diets without medical guidance are not recommended, as they can lead to nutritional deficiencies and may actually increase allergy risk [5].

If you suspect a specific food is worsening your baby’s eczema, discuss structured testing (skin prick tests or specific IgE blood tests followed by a supervised oral food challenge) with a pediatric allergist rather than removing foods on your own. Adults and older children who want to explore food changes will find the evidence laid out in our eczema diet post, which is not a template for infants.

Treatment: Start With Emollients

The single most effective daily intervention for infant eczema is generous, frequent application of an emollient (moisturizer). This is not a secondary “comfort” step; it is the core of treatment. Randomized controlled trials pooled in a 2017 Cochrane review show that consistent emollient use reduces flare frequency by 30-50% and decreases the amount of topical steroid needed [6].

Choosing an Emollient

Thicker is generally better. Ointments (like plain petroleum jelly or a petrolatum-based healing ointment) provide the most effective barrier. Thick, fragrance-free creams, including those made with ceramides, are a good middle ground. Lotions are the least effective because of their higher water content, which evaporates quickly [6].

Avoid products with fragrance, essential oils (including “natural” oils like lavender or tea tree), lanolin (a common sensitizer), and preservatives like methylisothiazolinone. Simple formulations with few ingredients are safest for eczema-prone baby skin. Our eczema cream post compares emollient types and prescription creams in more detail.

How to Apply

• Apply emollient at least twice daily to the entire body (not just affected areas).
• Apply within 3 minutes of bathing to lock in moisture.
• Use generous amounts. A rough guide: about 250 grams (a full 8-ounce tub) per week for an infant receiving full-body application.
• Apply in downward strokes (following the direction of hair growth) to minimize follicular irritation.

When to Use Topical Steroids

Topical corticosteroids remain the first-line anti-inflammatory treatment for eczema flares in babies. Many parents are understandably nervous about applying steroids to infant skin, but the evidence strongly supports their safety when used at appropriate potencies for appropriate durations, according to the Health Technology Assessment review by Hoare, Li Wan Po and Williams (2000) [7].

Potency for Babies

• Face, neck, skin folds: Hydrocortisone 1% (the mildest over-the-counter steroid) is appropriate for these thin-skinned areas.
• Body and limbs: Hydrocortisone 2.5% or a mild-to-moderate prescription steroid (such as desonide 0.05%) may be needed for thicker plaques.
• Potent steroids (Class I-III): Rarely appropriate for infants and should only be used under close dermatology or pediatric supervision for severe, refractory disease [7].

How to Apply Topical Steroids

Apply a thin layer to actively inflamed areas only (not the entire body). One “fingertip unit” (the amount squeezed from the tip of the tube to the first finger crease of an adult finger) covers an area roughly the size of two adult palms [7]. Apply the steroid first, then layer emollient over the entire skin 10 to 15 minutes later.

Typical treatment courses are 7 to 14 days for a flare. If eczema recurs quickly after stopping, a “proactive” maintenance approach (applying the steroid to previously affected areas 2 days per week even when clear) can reduce flare frequency and is supported by long-term safety data in children, according to a 2011 meta-analysis by Schmitt and colleagues [8].

Wet Wrap Therapy

For moderate-to-severe flares that are not responding well to standard emollient-plus-steroid treatment, wet wrap therapy can provide rapid relief. The technique involves:

1. Bathing the baby in lukewarm water for 5-10 minutes.
2. Applying topical medication and emollient to affected areas.
3. Covering the treated skin with a layer of damp (not dripping wet) cotton clothing, gauze, or tubular bandage.
4. Adding a dry layer on top.
5. Leaving the wraps in place for 2-4 hours (or overnight if tolerated).

Wet wraps enhance medication absorption, cool inflamed skin, and physically prevent scratching. A systematic review by Gonzalez-Lopez and colleagues (2017) found that wet wrap therapy significantly reduced eczema severity scores within 1 to 2 weeks [9]. It does require using a diluted steroid (or emollient only) under the wrap to avoid excessive steroid absorption, so discuss the protocol with your pediatrician or dermatologist before starting.

Bathing Guidelines

The “soak and seal” approach is now standard in pediatric eczema guidelines [10].

• Frequency: Daily baths are fine (and often beneficial) as long as you moisturize immediately afterward. The old advice to bathe infrequently to avoid “drying out” the skin has been replaced by evidence that brief, lukewarm baths actually hydrate the stratum corneum when followed by emollient application [10].
• Temperature: Lukewarm, not hot. Hot water strips natural oils and triggers itch.
• Duration: 5 to 10 minutes is sufficient.
• Cleanser: Use a fragrance-free, soap-free liquid cleanser only on visibly dirty areas (diaper area, hands, feet). The rest of the body can be rinsed with water alone.
• Drying: Pat (do not rub) the skin gently with a soft towel, leaving it slightly damp.
• Seal: Apply emollient within 3 minutes while skin is still damp.

Bleach baths (adding one-quarter to one-half teaspoon of household bleach per gallon of water) are sometimes recommended for children with recurrent skin infections or heavily colonized eczema. The concentration is comparable to a swimming pool and has been shown to reduce Staphylococcus aureus counts and flare severity [10]. Discuss this with your child’s doctor before starting.

How Is Severe Eczema in Babies Treated?

Severe eczema in babies is treated in steps: the daily emollient routine continues, topical steroids are used more deliberately, and a pediatric dermatologist adds wet wraps, infection control, steroid-sparing creams and, for babies 6 months and older, the biologic dupilumab. Each step is chosen by severity score, age and response, so the plan for a 4-month-old differs from the plan for a 3-year-old [2][10]. The table sets out the main options and how they are labeled in the United States.

Dupilumab for Babies From 6 Months

Dupilumab is a monoclonal antibody that blocks the interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 signals that drive type 2 inflammation in atopic dermatitis. The FDA extended its approval to children aged 6 months to 5 years with moderate to severe eczema in 2022, after the LIBERTY AD PRESCHOOL trial led by Amy Paller found clear improvements in skin clearance and itch compared with placebo [17]. It is given as an injection under the skin every few weeks, dosed by weight, and it is used alongside emollients rather than in place of them.

Steroid-Sparing Creams

Topical calcineurin inhibitors (tacrolimus and pimecrolimus) and the PDE4 inhibitor crisaborole calm inflammation without steroid thinning of the skin, which makes them useful on the eyelids, face and folds. Their US labels start at 2 years for calcineurin inhibitors and 3 months for crisaborole, so a dermatologist weighs age and severity before choosing one for an infant. They are less often first choice for a full flare, because low-potency steroids work faster.

The Food Allergy Connection

The relationship between infant eczema and food allergy runs in both directions. Babies with eczema are at higher risk of developing food allergies (part of the “atopic march”), and early eczema may actually serve as a route of allergen sensitization through the broken skin barrier [5].

This has led to a major shift in allergy prevention guidelines. The LEAP trial by Du Toit and colleagues (2015) demonstrated that early introduction of peanut (starting between 4 and 6 months of age) in high-risk infants with eczema or egg allergy reduced peanut allergy by 81% compared to avoidance [11]. Current guidelines from the American Academy of Pediatrics and other bodies recommend introducing common allergenic foods (peanut, egg, cow’s milk products) early and consistently in infants with eczema, rather than delaying them [11].

For babies with severe eczema or known egg allergy, an allergist evaluation before peanut introduction is prudent. For babies with mild-to-moderate eczema, early introduction at home (using age-appropriate forms like thinned peanut butter or peanut puffs) is considered safe and beneficial.

Switching to a partially or extensively hydrolyzed formula to prevent eczema is no longer advised for most families. A 2016 BMJ systematic review by Boyle and colleagues found no consistent evidence that hydrolyzed formula lowers the risk of eczema or other allergic disease [18]. Babies with a diagnosed cow’s milk allergy are a separate case, and their formula choice belongs with the allergist.

Natural History: Most Babies Outgrow It

One of the most reassuring aspects of infant eczema is its natural trajectory. Longitudinal studies, including the German Multicenter Allergy Study reported by Illi and colleagues (2004), show that 60-70% of children with onset before age 2 will experience significant improvement or complete resolution by ages 5-7 [12]. The earlier eczema starts and the milder it is, the better the prognosis for outgrowing it.

The “atopic march” is still real. Children who have had eczema are at increased risk of developing asthma (about 30%) and allergic rhinitis (about 35%) later in childhood [12]. There is active research into whether aggressive early eczema treatment and skin barrier repair can interrupt this progression, and preliminary evidence is promising but not yet conclusive [13].

Children with severe, widespread eczema that persists past age 5 are more likely to carry the condition into adolescence and adulthood. Genetic factors (particularly filaggrin gene mutations that impair skin barrier function) play a significant role in determining persistence, as reviewed by Irvine, McLean and Leung (2011) [13].

How Does Atopic Dermatitis Change From Infancy Through Childhood?

Atopic dermatitis in infants and children follows a recognizable pattern by age: the face and outer limbs in early infancy, the knees and elbows once a baby crawls, and the skin folds from toddlerhood onward [2]. Treatment options widen with age, as more creams carry US labels for older children. The table summarizes each stage using the figures and guidance cited above.

Prevention Strategies for Younger Siblings

If your first child has eczema, you may be wondering whether you can prevent it in subsequent children. Several strategies show promise:

• Daily emollient from birth: Two randomized trials found that applying emollient to the entire body daily from the first weeks of life reduced eczema incidence by 30-50% in high-risk infants [14]. While a larger follow-up study (the BEEP trial, Chalmers and colleagues, 2020) showed less dramatic results [16], many pediatric dermatologists still recommend this approach given its low risk and potential benefit.
• Early allergen introduction: Introducing peanut and egg early, as described under The Food Allergy Connection, appears to reduce both food allergy and potentially eczema risk.
• Breastfeeding: Data on breastfeeding and eczema prevention are mixed. Exclusive breastfeeding for 4-6 months may have a modest protective effect, but it does not reliably prevent eczema [14].
• Probiotics: Some meta-analyses suggest a small benefit from certain probiotic strains (particularly Lactobacillus rhamnosus) given during pregnancy and early infancy, but the evidence is not strong enough for universal recommendation [15].

When to See a Specialist

Most infant eczema can be managed by a pediatrician with emollients and mild topical steroids. Consider a referral to a pediatric dermatologist or allergist if:

• Eczema is not responding to appropriate first-line treatment after 2-4 weeks.
• Eczema is widespread or severe, affecting sleep, feeding, or growth.
• You suspect a food allergy (immediate reactions after eating specific foods).
• Recurrent skin infections are occurring despite good skin care.
• You are uncertain about the diagnosis (other conditions like seborrheic dermatitis, scabies, or psoriasis can mimic eczema in infants).

Seek same-day care for clusters of punched-out sores with fever, which can signal eczema herpeticum, or for a baby who is feeding poorly and unusually drowsy alongside a flare [3]. The way psoriasis and eczema differ on the skin is set out in our post on psoriasis vs. eczema.

Eczema in babies can be exhausting to manage, but the prognosis is genuinely good. With consistent moisturizing, appropriate use of mild steroids for flares, trigger avoidance, and early allergen introduction, the majority of infants will see significant improvement within the first few years of life.

Where Integrative and Functional Eczema Clinics Fit

Pediatric dermatology and pediatric allergy are the right first stops for a baby with severe atopic eczema. Integrative and functional medicine clinics that offer eczema care mostly treat adults and older children, and many of the approaches they offer, such as broad elimination diets, gut protocols and light-based therapies, have little or no research in infants. Most of those services are cash pay and are not FDA approved for eczema.

Parents of older children and adults with persistent atopic dermatitis sometimes want those options alongside conventional care. The eczema treatment clinic directory lists practices across the United States, and the guide to eczema treatment options explains what each approach involves and where its evidence stands. Listing order on Regenerated.com is not paid ranking. Featured slots are clearly labeled and capped, Verified means the clinic completed credential checks rather than paid for placement, and the directory is free for patients. Inclusion is not an endorsement, so bring the plan back to your child’s pediatrician or dermatologist.

Frequently asked questions

What does severe eczema look like on a baby?

Severe eczema on a baby looks like red, inflamed skin over large areas, often including the trunk, with weeping, crusting or thickened patches from constant rubbing. Babies with severe atopic dermatitis wake most nights from itch, scratch until the skin bleeds, and get repeated skin infections. Poor feeding or slow weight gain alongside widespread rash is a sign the eczema needs a pediatric dermatologist rather than another tub of moisturizer.

Can babies with severe eczema get dupilumab?

Yes, babies 6 months and older with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis that topical treatment does not control can be prescribed dupilumab. The FDA extended its approval to this age group in 2022 after the LIBERTY AD PRESCHOOL trial showed better skin clearance and less itch than placebo. It is an injection given every few weeks and dosed by weight, it is used together with daily emollients, and eye irritation is a known side effect.

Is hydrocortisone cream safe for my baby’s face?

Hydrocortisone 1% is the potency pediatricians use on a baby’s face, neck and skin folds, and it has a long safety record when applied thinly for short courses of about 7 to 14 days. Stronger steroids are avoided on the face because the skin there is thin. If facial eczema keeps returning, a dermatologist may suggest a steroid-sparing cream such as crisaborole, which is labeled from 3 months of age.

Should I change my baby’s formula because of eczema?

Changing formula is not routinely recommended for eczema. A 2016 BMJ systematic review by Boyle and colleagues found no consistent evidence that hydrolyzed formula prevents eczema or allergic disease. A switch makes sense when a pediatric allergist confirms cow’s milk allergy, usually after immediate symptoms such as hives or vomiting following feeds, and testing. Removing foods or formulas without testing can delay growth and may increase allergy risk.

At what age do babies outgrow eczema?

Most babies with eczema improve markedly or clear between ages 5 and 7. The German Multicenter Allergy Study found that 60 to 70% of children whose eczema began before age 2 had significant improvement or full resolution by school age. Mild, early-onset eczema carries the best outlook, while severe, widespread eczema that persists past age 5, often linked to filaggrin gene changes, is more likely to continue into the teenage years.

Is baby eczema contagious?

Baby eczema is not contagious, because atopic dermatitis comes from a weak skin barrier and an overactive immune response rather than an infection. Infected eczema is different: Staphylococcus aureus or herpes simplex virus on broken skin can spread to other people. Honey-colored crusts, pus bumps or fast-spreading blisters with fever need medical care, and the baby should avoid close contact with others until treatment starts.

Related Reading

• Eczema: Complete Guide
• Eczema treatment options for children and adults
• Eczema on the face

Sources

1. Bylund S, Kobyletzki LB, Svalstedt M, Svensson A. “Prevalence and incidence of atopic dermatitis: a systematic review.” Acta Derm Venereol. 2020;100(12):adv00160. doi:10.2340/00015555-3510 ↩
2. Eichenfield LF, Tom WL, Chamlin SL, et al. “Guidelines of care for the management of atopic dermatitis: Section 1.” J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;70(2):338-351. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2013.10.010 ↩
3. Ong PY, Leung DYM. “Bacterial and viral infections in atopic dermatitis: a comprehensive review.” Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2016;51(3):329-337. doi:10.1007/s12016-016-8548-5 ↩
4. Cork MJ, Danby SG, Vasilopoulos Y, et al. “Epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis.” J Invest Dermatol. 2009;129(8):1892-1908. doi:10.1038/jid.2009.133 ↩
5. Eigenmann PA, Sicherer SH, Borkowski TA, et al. “Prevalence of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis.” Pediatrics. 1998;101(3):e8. doi:10.1542/peds.101.3.e8 ↩
6. van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz Z, Christensen R, et al. “Emollients and moisturisers for eczema.” Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;2(2):CD012119. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012119.pub2 ↩
7. Hoare C, Li Wan Po A, Williams H. “Systematic review of treatments for atopic eczema.” Health Technol Assess. 2000;4(37):1-191. doi:10.3310/hta4370 ↩
8. Schmitt J, von Kobyletzki L, Svensson A, Apfelbacher C. “Efficacy and tolerability of proactive treatment with topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors for atopic eczema.” Br J Dermatol. 2011;164(2):415-428. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.10030.x ↩
9. Gonzalez-Lopez G, Ceballos-Rodriguez RM, Gonzalez-Lopez JJ, et al. “Efficacy and safety of wet wrap therapy for patients with atopic dermatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Br J Dermatol. 2017;177(3):688-695. doi:10.1111/bjd.15165 ↩
10. Eichenfield LF, Tom WL, Berger TG, et al. “Guidelines of care for the management of atopic dermatitis: Section 2.” J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71(1):116-132. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.03.023 ↩
11. Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, et al. “Randomized trial of peanut consumption in infants at risk for peanut allergy.” N Engl J Med. 2015;372(9):803-813. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1414850 ↩
12. Illi S, von Mutius E, Lau S, et al. “The natural course of atopic dermatitis from birth to age 7 years and the association with asthma.” J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113(5):925-931. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2004.01.778 ↩
13. Irvine AD, McLean WH, Leung DY. “Filaggrin mutations associated with skin and allergic diseases.” N Engl J Med. 2011;365(14):1315-1327. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1011040 ↩
14. Simpson EL, Chalmers JR, Hanifin JM, et al. “Emollient enhancement of the skin barrier from birth offers effective atopic dermatitis prevention.” J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(4):818-823. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.08.005 ↩
15. Zuccotti G, Meneghin F, Aceti A, et al. “Probiotics for prevention of atopic diseases in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis.” Allergy. 2015;70(11):1356-1371. doi:10.1111/all.12700 ↩
16. Chalmers JR, Haines RH, Bradshaw LE, et al. “Daily emollient during infancy for prevention of eczema: the BEEP randomised controlled trial.” Lancet. 2020;395(10228):962-972. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32984-8 ↩
17. Paller AS, Simpson EL, Siegfried EC, et al. “Dupilumab in children aged 6 months to younger than 6 years with uncontrolled atopic dermatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.” Lancet. 2022;400(10356):908-919. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01539-2 ↩
18. Boyle RJ, Ierodiakonou D, Khan T, et al. “Hydrolysed formula and risk of allergic or autoimmune disease: systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMJ. 2016;352:i974. doi:10.1136/bmj.i974 ↩